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1. A copper wire (I think; it's covered in stupid house paint too) with green plastic shielding/insulation that appears to come out of the ground and is not connected to anything on the end I can see. It looks like this could be it; since I don't want to use an exterior coax splitter, should I instead purchase and install a coax ground block between the splice point and attach the green wire to it? Can I verify that the green wire is grounded by touching an ohmmeter to it and to, say, my electrical mains conduit or what I think may be the ground rod?
That is probably the ground wire that may have been attached to the coax ground block. Telco and CATV use a #6 wire w/green insulation for that purpose.
Using a Multimeter, set it on AC Voltage FIRST and test the wire. Then test it using the ohms scale.
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2. A twisted steel cable of the type I've often seen attached to ground rods with a clamp/electrode. It comes from the ground near the green wire and immediately disappears up under the siding. I suspect this may run to the breaker box in the garage or something.
That is probably the power ground to the breaker panel.
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3. A metal rod (possibly zinc or steel, although it looks a bit rusted on the very top) protruding just a couple inches from the ground, with no electrode/clamp attached. Could this be the ground rod, with everything connecting underground? It does look like the green wire and twisted steel cable come out of the ground just a few inches away, on the house side of the rod.
That is a 6-8' ground rod, if you dig down there should be 3 connections attached to it. CATV, Power, and Telco attach to it to make a 'common' ground.
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4. The natural gas meter conduit on the opposite end of the wall has some wires attached to it that come out of the ground right next to it.
Those are used to attach a cable locator, since the pipe below the ground is plastic to the street.
IMO, you should make Comcast come out and fix that mess. You really shouldn't have to fix things and legally they are responsible to make sure that the coax has adequate grounding at your premises.
You may also want to consider rewiring the entire house. Ya, I saw you mentioned a crawl space..... If you wire the house and do what we call a 'home run' with each outlet you could probably eliminate most of the splitters you have now and maybe even the AMP. It all depends if you have the time and how long you think you are going to stay in that house if you want to make the effort.